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Research Article
Generative Artificial Intelligence: Research on the Risk of Science and Technology Ethics, Regulatory Mechanism and Governance Strategy
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
261-290
Received:
3 October 2025
Accepted:
13 October 2025
Published:
30 October 2025
Abstract: Digital information technologies represented by General Artificial Intelligence (GAI) are becoming the core driving force behind profound transformations in the digital judicial field. GAI may trigger ethical risks across cognitive, subject, knowledge, and data dimensions, including dissemination of biases and discrimination, privacy breaches, fabrication of false information, manipulation of cognition, and even research ethics violations. The root causes of technological ethics issues stem from insufficient stakeholder accountability, imbalance between instrumental and value rationality, self-limitation of digital judicial technologies, and inadequate AI regulatory mechanisms. It is essential to follow practical mechanisms involving technology mediation, digital benevolence, legal supervision, and ethical standard formulation. This approach aims to enhance GAIs role in reinforcing the value concept of "promoting human welfare," improving ethical governance, increasing technical explainability, strengthening corporate self-discipline, and establishing global collaborative mechanisms for comprehensive risk management. GAI undergoes rapid innovation iterations, it continues to empower human society across multiple domains: serving as an essential driving force for innovation and efficiency enhancement in the digital age, while simultaneously raising public ethical concerns due to its inherent uncertainties, risks, and complex disruptive social impacts. Assessing and addressing GAIs ethical risks proves crucial for protecting individual rights, upholding fairness and justice, and promoting social harmony. Therefore, we should approach GAI technological progress with a cautious yet forward-looking ethical perspective, ensuring that GAI truly creates benefits for humanity.
Abstract: Digital information technologies represented by General Artificial Intelligence (GAI) are becoming the core driving force behind profound transformations in the digital judicial field. GAI may trigger ethical risks across cognitive, subject, knowledge, and data dimensions, including dissemination of biases and discrimination, privacy breaches, fabr...
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Research Article
Challenges of the Consumer Protection in Bangladesh: A Legal Analysis
Salena Akter*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
291-297
Received:
1 August 2025
Accepted:
29 August 2025
Published:
22 November 2025
Abstract: This article examines the state of consumer rights-protection in Bangladesh, highlighting both the legal framework and its practical implications. There are certain stipulations for the consumers to incline any legal action. Without having any money receipt none can file a complaint. There is a lacking in the state practice not to provide money receipt to all for petty shopping. Under such circumstances, Bangladesh has comprehensive laws in place to safeguard consumer rights, shortcomings persist in ensuring adequate protection. The presence of overlapping statutes and regulatory bodies underscores the lack of streamlined consumer protection mechanisms in the country. Another issue might be raised that is shortage of man power to run such an office smoothly. There is no independent office to oversee and work with the submitted complaints. Another perception is seen among the consumers that they might not get any remedy submitting a complaint. Through an analysis of these issues, the article aims to shed light on the challenges facing consumer rights enforcement and calls for reforms to enhance the efficacy of consumer protection measures in Bangladesh. For the better interest of the consumers the maintenance of the quality of commodities and goods is another issue to focus. In the recommendations a few suggestions have been given.
Abstract: This article examines the state of consumer rights-protection in Bangladesh, highlighting both the legal framework and its practical implications. There are certain stipulations for the consumers to incline any legal action. Without having any money receipt none can file a complaint. There is a lacking in the state practice not to provide money rec...
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Research Article
Legal and Economic Implications of International Trade Agreements on Investments Dispute Resolution
Amos William Omolo*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
298-308
Received:
6 September 2025
Accepted:
19 September 2025
Published:
3 December 2025
Abstract: International trade agreements are major avenues for facilitating global economic growth, ensuring smooth supply chain management across the globe, and coordination of international relations among other social and economic activities among nations. However, such agreements and activities thereof are inevitably prone to disagreements and violations of the guiding principles. Multilateral trade agreements, Bilateral Investment Treaties, and even Regional Trade Agreements often involve countries with economic, political, and legal backgrounds or trends that predisposes them to occasional disharmony with the provisions. It is the inevitability of the disharmony and disputes in the international trade agreements that moved commercial regulators like the World Trade Organization to come up with legal and alternative mechanisms for resolving the disputes. Nevertheless, the trade agreements are equally unique in terms of their provisions with potential impacts on arbitration as an established alternative mechanism for solving international investment disputes. This study sought to examine the possible economic and legal implications of international trade agreements, including bilateral investment treaties and regional trade agreements on arbitration of international investment disputes. It was informed by three specific objectives namely, analysis of the provisions and mechanisms of international trade agreements, assessing the effects of the international trade agreements on the legal framework governing investment dispute resolution, and examination of the economic consequences of investment dispute resolution under international trade agreements. Systematic review of relevant literature alongside case analysis were used as the research methods for the realization of the aforementioned objectives. Both bilateral investment treaties and regional trade agreements were establish to contain substantial and binding provisions most of which recognize and support arbitration in the resolution of their investment disputes. Multiple cases emanating from various trade agreements were established to have been settled through arbitral tribunals. Therefore, the study concludes by noting that different provisions of the international trade agreements have worked towards strengthening the position of arbitration as a mechanism of solving international investment disputes.
Abstract: International trade agreements are major avenues for facilitating global economic growth, ensuring smooth supply chain management across the globe, and coordination of international relations among other social and economic activities among nations. However, such agreements and activities thereof are inevitably prone to disagreements and violations...
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Research Article
An Analysis of the Legal and Institutional Framework on Marriage Conciliation Boards in Tanzania
Abdulrahman Omari Juma Kaniki*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
309-319
Received:
3 October 2025
Accepted:
22 October 2025
Published:
3 December 2025
Abstract: Efforts should be made to ensure that marriage is salvaged. It is in this understanding that the Law of Marriage Act provides for the Marriage Conciliation Boards (MCBs) whose main role is to conciliate spouses of shaking marriages. That is why the law provides that all divorce proceedings should be preceded by conciliation before MCBs. It is only when the MCBs fail to conciliate the parties to the marriages that courts are invited to dissolve such marriages. In view of this requirement, this paper seeks to analyse the legal and institutional framework on MCBs in Tanzania. The study employed a doctrinal research whereby various sources were reviewed and analysed. They included text books, peer-reviewed journals, official reports, statutes, subsidiary legislation and case-law. In the course of analysis, a number of decisions of the High Court and Court of Appeal of Tanzania are cited to show proper interpretation of relevant provisions of the Law of Marriage Act. It is only in instances where the court is satisfied that there are extraordinary circumstances which make reference to the Board impracticable that matrimonial disputes go straight to court seeking for petition for divorce. The study identifies some challenges that affect effective operation of MCBs as envisaged by the law. They include lack of training and adequate skills to members of the boards and married, spouses opting for improper fora, handling of matrimonial cases by petitioners and lawyers, and inadequate skills by judicial officers of lower courts. The paper finds that MCBs are very important in bringing estranged spouses together through conciliation and that it only where a marriage has irretrievably broken down then courts of law are invited to entertain divorce proceedings. Thus, the following recommendations are made with the view to improving operationalisation of MCBs: the need for legal education to members of the public, strengthening legal-institutional capacity of members of MCBs and needed training for magistrates on legal-institutional framework governing matrimonial matters.
Abstract: Efforts should be made to ensure that marriage is salvaged. It is in this understanding that the Law of Marriage Act provides for the Marriage Conciliation Boards (MCBs) whose main role is to conciliate spouses of shaking marriages. That is why the law provides that all divorce proceedings should be preceded by conciliation before MCBs. It is only ...
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Research Article
Bridging the Digital Tax Gap: A Comparative Analysis of Online Business Taxation in Tanzania
Martha Joseph Kanama*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
320-327
Received:
11 August 2025
Accepted:
26 August 2025
Published:
9 December 2025
Abstract: The rapid expansion of online business has created increasingly complex challenges for tax systems worldwide, with developing countries such as Tanzania facing particular difficulties. As e-commerce and digital platforms reshape traditional business models, governments must urgently adapt outdated tax frameworks to capture revenue from digital transactions. Tanzania, like many other common law jurisdictions, struggles to regulate and tax its growing digital economy due to limited statutory definitions of online business, weak enforcement capacity and the predominance of informal trading through social media and mobile money platforms. The objective of this article is to critically assess the effectiveness of Tanzania’s current legal and administrative frameworks governing online business taxation, while situating these within broader global developments. The paper identifies key structural and operational gaps, including the absence of resident-focused provisions, lack of integration between mobile money operators and the tax authority and inadequate compliance mechanisms for small-scale digital entrepreneurs. To provide a comparative perspective, the study draws on experiences from Kenya, India and the United Kingdom jurisdictions that have made notable progress in implementing digital taxation measures. Particular attention is given to the adoption of digital services taxes, regulation of non-resident providers, the use of technological tools for real-time tax monitoring and the role of taxpayer education in enhancing compliance. These comparative insights highlight both the opportunities and challenges of aligning Tanzania’s framework with emerging international practices. The article concludes by recommending a set of legal, administrative, and technological reforms aimed at modernizing Tanzania’s digital tax regime. These include the development of digital economy tax strategy, introduction of significant economic presence provisions, implementation of a tiered digital taxation regime, building technological capacity, strengthening public awareness campaigns, extending VAT regulations to include residents and defining “online business” in law. Such reforms are essential to ensure equity, enhance compliance and secure long-term fiscal sustainability in the context of an evolving global digital economy.
Abstract: The rapid expansion of online business has created increasingly complex challenges for tax systems worldwide, with developing countries such as Tanzania facing particular difficulties. As e-commerce and digital platforms reshape traditional business models, governments must urgently adapt outdated tax frameworks to capture revenue from digital tran...
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Research Article
Legal Framework of Free Trade Zones in Nigeria: A Shift Towards Taxation
Samson Faithful Obiora*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
328-336
Received:
5 October 2025
Accepted:
3 November 2025
Published:
9 December 2025
Abstract: This paper examines the operations of Free Trade Zones in Nigeria, adopting the doctrinal legal research methodology. It explores amongst others, the regulatory framework provided under the Nigeria Export Processing Zones Authority Act, 1992, the Nigeria Export Processing Zones Authority Order, 2002 and the Investment Procedures, Regulations, and Operational Guidelines for Free Zones in Nigeria, 2004. The paper also critiques the operations of free trade zones in Nigeria against the backdrop of the proposed National Tax Bill, 2024. As this paper will reveal, the proposed regime under the National Tax Bill marks a paradigm shift from the tax-exempt incentive granted under the extant legal framework to a graduated tax system. This proposed tax regime is structured into three (3) tiers – full exemption, partial exemption, and no exemption – determined by the level of export performance of entities operating within the zones. The findings expose several gaps in the proposed tax regime, including the risk of tax avoidance by offshore or related entities, the absence of a defined methodology for determining proportional tax in cases of partial exemption, increased administrative burden and a disproportionate penalty system arising from the trifurcated tax structure, amongst concerns. This paper, in reflecting on these statutory gaps, concludes by emphasizing the need for a cautious approach, thorough impact assessment, and adequate stakeholder consultation.
Abstract: This paper examines the operations of Free Trade Zones in Nigeria, adopting the doctrinal legal research methodology. It explores amongst others, the regulatory framework provided under the Nigeria Export Processing Zones Authority Act, 1992, the Nigeria Export Processing Zones Authority Order, 2002 and the Investment Procedures, Regulations, and O...
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Research Article
Examining the Significance of the Phelemero Digital Platform Concept of Community Policing on Use of Technology for Investigation of Crime in Malawi
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
337-348
Received:
17 October 2025
Accepted:
29 October 2025
Published:
9 December 2025
Abstract: By 2029 Africa anticipates to have about 1, 1 billion projected internet users. Technology integrates Africans on formal informal and non-formal initiated digital surveillance projects for socialization and interaction promoting collaboration and coordination rallying wide participatory successful transaction. The storage replication and dissemination of data in online transactions, data is often processed and stored in unsecured online storage areas, leading to the leaking of both personally identifiable information and data promoting cybercrimes. Protection of data is integral to the digital economy, ensuring ethical use. This study examines the significance of the Phelemero Digital Platform concept of community policing on advanced technology use for prevention and detection of crime in Malawi through literature survey and local observation. Findings reveal that the Phelemero Digital platform concept of community policing shows multiplicity technology perceptions (a) store, replicate, and disseminate information (b) facilitate citizens’ integrate formal informal and non-formal on initiated digital surveillance projects (c) anticipated challenges on the use of technology for security (d) enhanced citizens’ engagement to digital monitoring and surveillance (e) provide improved channels of communication, alternative ways to gain transparency, revolutionize transform and amplify the customary bureaucratic procedures providing real-time evidence analysis (f) Portrays willingness to digital Literacy empowerment (g) Shows the spirit of citizen participation (h) Shows technology integration can facilitate collaborative leadership (i) Overcoming Traditional Policing Challenges (j) Reveals Contextual Relevance in Malawi. Right of privacy in use of advanced technology for national security is guided by Section 21 (c) of Malawi Constitution through enforcement of Malawi Data Protection Act which promotes (1) Protection of Citizens’ Privacy & Rights (2) Fair, Transparent, and Accountable Data Handling (3) Legal & Institutional Oversight (4) Promoting Trust and Confidence (5) Supporting Digital Economy & International Alignment (6) Human Rights Dimension and (7) Mitigating Risks of Data Breaches & Abuse. The Possible Challenges of enforcing the Malawi Data Protection Act are (i) awareness and capacity (ii) resources for Enforcement (iii) balancing with other rights and needs (iv) and cross-border data flows. Value contribution to body of knowledge is that the Phelemero Digital platform concept of community policing gives the interpretation that technology has capacity to integrate citizen at formal informal and non-formal initiated digital surveillance projects defeating the cynical withdrawal due to formal customary bureaucratic procedures as outlined in Participatory Democracy and Social Disorganization Theories. Technology promotes wide citizen participation promoting transparency and accountability in public matters hence reducing corruption.
Abstract: By 2029 Africa anticipates to have about 1, 1 billion projected internet users. Technology integrates Africans on formal informal and non-formal initiated digital surveillance projects for socialization and interaction promoting collaboration and coordination rallying wide participatory successful transaction. The storage replication and disseminat...
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Methodology Article
Attributive-criminological Characterization of ML/FT Crimes as a Method of Information Analysis in the AML/CFT System
Matthias Alexander Kędzierski*
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
349-359
Received:
28 October 2025
Accepted:
10 November 2025
Published:
9 December 2025
Abstract: The article proposes a methodological approach to the analysis of intelligence and financial information by applying the - attributive - forensic characterization of ML/FT crimes (AFCC). The purpose of using AFCC is to obtain the highest level of certainty (probability) of criminal events and various types of connections with them, which coherently reflect the characteristics of a given crime (ML/FT). This pursuit of "certainty" is understandably associated with assigning an act to a specific person and demonstrating its occurrence as penalized behavior. But also a transition from the state of probability of threat - used at the level of risk analysis and the use of mitigants to neutralize it, to the state of actual typing of elements of crime threat. The introduction of AFCC should affect the general organization and tactics of criminal investigations in the field of ML/FT using identification and analytical mechanisms (for risk assessment purposes) available to the countermeasure system itself based on IO (obligated institutions) - national FIU (Financial Intelligence Unit) relations. AFCC broadens the scope of the search for and interpretation of facts/events that can be linked in the IO to the characteristics of money laundering and money laundering crimes. AFCC aims to give information vectors to information generated already at the stage of its possession in the IO. These vectors may be multiple and determined also by factors internal and external to the IO, but they are characterized by the evidentiary direction of the future investigation.. The AFCC method, on the other hand, offers the potential to strengthen the evidentiary process of "suspicious activity" identified analytically and then procedurally by the ML/FT perpetrator. For these purposes, it is crucial to develop a suspiciousness attribute within the IO that will identify suspicious behavior, transactions, and relationships between the client and the institution. Actions undertaken using this factor can contribute to establishing both a monetary and criminal trail.
Abstract: The article proposes a methodological approach to the analysis of intelligence and financial information by applying the - attributive - forensic characterization of ML/FT crimes (AFCC). The purpose of using AFCC is to obtain the highest level of certainty (probability) of criminal events and various types of connections with them, which coherently...
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Research Article
The Evidential Power of Visum et Repertum in Solving Murder Cases in Indonesia
Henny Saida Flora*,
Maidin Gultom,
Ica Karina
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, December 2025
Pages:
360-368
Received:
2 November 2025
Accepted:
12 November 2025
Published:
9 December 2025
Abstract: The visum et repertum serves as a crucial piece of evidence in criminal investigations, particularly in homicide cases in Indonesia. As a medico-legal document prepared by a forensic doctor at the request of law enforcement, it provides scientific findings regarding injuries, causes of death, and other physiological conditions of the victim. This study aims to analyze the evidentiary strength of the visum et repertum in uncovering murder cases within the Indonesian criminal justice system. Using a normative juridical method supported by case analysis, this research examines the legal position of the visum et repertum as regulated in the Indonesian Criminal Procedure Code (KUHAP) and other related laws. The results show that the visum et repertum has a significant probative value as expert testimony in written form, which is essential to prove the occurrence of violence or death and to identify the mechanism and time of death. Although it is categorized as secondary evidence, its scientific and objective nature often makes it a decisive element in court proceedings. Furthermore, the visum et repertum bridges the gap between legal interpretation and medical science, providing clarity that cannot be obtained through ordinary witness statements. However, the strength of this document also depends on the accuracy of forensic examination, the completeness of police requests, and the competence of the medical expert. In conclusion, the visum et repertum plays a vital and irreplaceable role in the process of revealing truth in murder cases. Strengthening coordination between law enforcement and forensic institutions, as well as enhancing the professionalism of forensic experts, is essential to ensure that the visum et repertum remains a reliable instrument of justice in Indonesia’s criminal procedure system.
Abstract: The visum et repertum serves as a crucial piece of evidence in criminal investigations, particularly in homicide cases in Indonesia. As a medico-legal document prepared by a forensic doctor at the request of law enforcement, it provides scientific findings regarding injuries, causes of death, and other physiological conditions of the victim. This s...
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